State and the Commodification of Natural Resources: A Framework of Analysis
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Published:
Oct 31, 2022
Keywords:
Natural resource,, commodification, international trade, Multinational Corporation, and environmentalist.
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Abstract
The commodification of nature and framing of the environment as natural resources have become increasingly prominent in international environmental governance discuss because most natural resources are traded through organised commodity exchanges. The result the depletion of natural resources with the attendant negative impact on the environment and the poor. Commodification has brought about the framing of the environment as a ‘natural resource’
and has become increasingly prominent in international environmental governance. The role of international organisations like the World Bank, United Nations
Environmental Programme (UNEP) through Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) and The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) and its adoption by the Convention on Biological Conservation are indications of the concepts wide-ranging appeal. This paper sees commodification and the role of different actors as putting a price on nature’s goods in the form of species banking and conservation finance as a strategy for solving a range of environmental problems from climate change to deforestation. The paper concluded that commodification should be seen as an approach to bringing ethics into natural resources management, capable of generating incentives that are required to guide people towards ethical use of natural resources to the advantage of all.
Article Details
How to Cite
Osawe, A. I. (2022). State and the Commodification of Natural Resources: A Framework of Analysis. African Journal of Stability & Development, 14(1&2), 182-205. https://doi.org/10.53982/ajsd.2022.1401_2.08-j
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References
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Supply in England and Wales’. Annals of the Association of American
Geographers 95 (3): 542–565.
———. (2006). ‘The Nature that Capital Can See: Science, State, and
Market in the Commodification of Ecosystem Services’. Environment
and Planning D24 (3): 367–387.
———. (2007). ‘The “Commons” versus the “Commodity”: Alterglobalisation, anti-privatisation and the human right to water in the global
South’. Antipode 39 (3): 430–455.
Adorno, T.W. (ed.) (1969). SpätkapitalismusoderIndustriegesellschaft.
Verhandlungen des 16. DeutschenSoziologentages. Stuttgart.
Aldo Leopold, A. (1949). Sand country almanac, with Essays on
Conservation from Round River. Random House (Reprinted 1970),
New York.
Armstrong, P., Glyn, A. & Harrison, J. (1984) Capitalism since World
War II: The Making and Breakup of the Great Boom. Fontana.
Armsworth P. R., Chan K. M. A., Daily, G. C., Kremen, C, Rick-etts, T. H.
& Sanjayan, M. A. (2007). Ecosystem-service science and the way
forward for conservation. Conservation Biology 21: 1383–1384.
Bakker, K. (2003). An Uncooperative Commodity: Privatising water in
England and Wales. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bayon, R. (2004). Making environmental markets work: Lessons from
early experience with sulphur, carbon, wetlands, and other related
markets. Forest Trends, Katoomba Group Meeting in Locarno,
Switzerland.
Bridge, G. & Perreault, T. (2009). ‘Environmental Governance’, in Castree,
Noel, et al. (eds) A Companion to Environmental Geography, Oxford:
Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 475-497. (p. 487).
Brosius, P. (1999). Green dots, pink hearts: displacing politics from the
Malaysian rain forest. American Anthropologist 101 (1): 36–57.
Büscher, B. & Fletcher, R. (2014). Conservation by accumulation. New
Political Economy 1 (1): 1–26.
Castree, N. (2003a). ‘Commodifying What Nature?’ Progress in Human
Geography, 27(3): pp. 273-29.
Castree, N. (2010b). ‘Neoliberalism and the Biophysical Environment 2:
Theorising the Neoliberalisation of Nature’, Geography Compass,
4(12): pp. 1734-1746.
Castree, N. (2011). ‘Neoliberalism and the biophysical environment 3:
Putting theory into practice’, Geography Compass, 5(1): pp. 35-
49. (p. 37, 43).
Cheng, K. (2021). Why Exploitation is Unjust: An Egalitarian Account. An
Unpublished Thesis Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Politics and International studies, University of Warwick. Retrieved
from Warwick.ac.uk/lib-publications.
Costanza, R. (2008). Ecosystem services: Multiple classification systems
are needed. Biological Conservation 141: 350–352.
Daily, G. E. (1997). Nature’s services - Societal dependence on natural
ecosystems. Island Press, Washington.
Daly, H. and Cobb, J. (1994). For the common good: Redirecting the
economy towards community, the environment, and a sustainable
future. Beacon Press, Massachusetts.
de Groot, R. S., Wilson, M. & Boumans, R. (2002). A typology for the
description, classification and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods
and services. Ecological Economics 41: 393–408.
Duffy, R., St John, F. A. V., Büscher, B. & Brockington, D. (2015). The
militarisation of anti-poaching: undermining long term goals?
Environmental Conservation 42 (4): 345–348.
Engel, S., Pagiola, S. & Wunder, S. (2008). Designing payments for
environmental services in theory and practice: An overview of the issues.
Ecological Economics 65: 663–674.
Ernest, M. (1975). Late Capitalism (London: Humanities Press).
FAO Earthscan (2011). The State of the World’s land and water resources
for food and agriculture: Managing Systems at Risk. Food and
Agriculture Organisation of the United Nation and the Earthscan.
Freedman, B. (2018). Non-renewable resources – environnemental
science. Powered by Press book.
Getis, A.., Getis, J., Bjelland, M. D. & Fellman, J. D. (2011). Introduction
to Geography. (13th Edition). McGraw Hill Companies. New York.
Pp 118-154.
Gómez-Baggethun, E. & Ruiz-Pérez, M. (2011). Economic valuation and
the commodification of ecosystem services. Progress in Physical
Geography 35: 617–632.
Habermas, J. (1973). Legitimations problemeimSpätkapitalismus.
Frankfurt: Suhrkamp.
Hahn, T. & Tuvendal, M. (2015). Purpose and degrees of commodification:
Economic instruments for biodiversity and eco-system services seed
not rely on market or monetary valuation. Ecosystem Services, Vol.
16, Pp 74-82. Sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 15th November, 2021.
Harmes, A. Unseen Power: How Mutual funds Threaten the Political
Economic Wealth of Nations (Studdard, 2001) at 76.
Harry, R.T. (2006). Challenging Late Capitalism, Neoliberal Globalisation,
& Militarism. ChangeMakers Publication, Chicago IL60647 www.lulu/
changemaker.
Harvey, D. (2003). The New Imperialism, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Haydn W. (2012). The commodification of nature; Paper presented to the
6th Australian National Wilderness Conference, Sydney, September.
Igoe, J. & Brockington, D. (2007) Neoliberal conservation: a brief
introduction. Conservation and Society 5 (4): 432–449.
Jameson, F. (1997). Culture and finance capitalism. Critical Inquiry
24(1).
King, E., J. Cavender-Bares, P., Balvanera, & T. H. Mwampamba, (2015).
Trade–offs in eco-system services and varying stakeholders:
ecology and society. Retrieved from https//www.ecologyand
society.org
Kosoy, C. andLiverman, D. (2010). ‘Who governs, at what scale and at
what price? Geography, environmental governance, and the
commodification of nature’, Annals of the Association of American
Geographers, 94(4): pp. 734-738.
Kosoy, N. and Corbera, E. (2010). ‘Payments for ecosystem services as
commodity fetishism’, Ecological Economics, 69(1): pp. 1228-1236.
Laurent, C.T., (2008). Natural resources and the development
environment dilemma: the shape of the world to come. Charting
the geopolitics of the new century. New York Columbia Press.
Lenin, V.I. (1920). Report on the international situation and the
fundamental tasks of the communist international, July 19, 1920.
Lohmann, L. (2010). ‘“Strange markets” and the climate crisis’, in Bonilla,
O. and Galvez, E. Crisis financier o crisis civilizatoria, Quito: Instituto
de Estudios Ecologistasdel Tercer Mundo. (p. 5);
MacKenzie, D. (2009). ‘Making Things the Same: Gases, Emissions Rights
and the Politics of Carbon Markets’, Accounting, Organisations and
Society, 34(1): pp. 440-455.
Mansfield, B. (2004). ‘Rules of Privatisation: Contradiction in Neoliberal
Regulation of North Pacific Fisheries’. Annals of the Association of
American Geographers 94 (3): 565–584.
Marx, K. (1981). Grundrisse: Foundation of the Critique of Political
Economy (Rough Draft) (Pengiun, London).
McCarthy, J. ‘Commons’, in Castree, N., et al. (eds) (2009). A companion
to environmental geography, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
McCarthy, J. and Prudham, S. (2004). ‘Neoliberal Nature and the Nature
of Neoliberalism’. Geoforum 35: 275–283.
Michelle, D. (2009). Introduction to Sociological Theory: Theorists,
Concepts and their Applicability to the Twenty-first century.
Goodread Inc. Amazon Publications NY.
Millennium Assessment (M.A.) (2005). Ecosystems and human wellbeing: A framework for assessment. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Miller, G. T., & Spoolman, S. (2011). Living in the environment: Principle,
connections and solutions (17th ed.) Belmont, CA: Brooks-Cole.
Missemer, A. (2018). ‘Natural Capital as an Economic Concept, History
and Contemporary Issues’. Ecological Economics 143: 90–96.
O’Neill, J. (2001). ‘Markets and the environment: The solution is the
problem’, Economic and Political Weekly, 36(21): pp. 1865-1873.
Oelschlaeger, M. (1991). The idea of wilderness: From prehistory to the
age of ecology. Yale University Press, New Haven/London.
OISD (2019). Two paradigms: Sustainable development paradigms InDepth: Sustainability Theory- A Contested Paradigm. (Weak Versus
strong Sustainability: Exploring the Limits of Two Opposing
Paradigms. OISD, Washington DC.
P.B.S. Documentary (2009). ‘The national parks: America’s best idea’,
public broadcasting service. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/
nationalparks/
Prudham, W. S. (2009). ‘Commodification’, in Castree, Noel, et al. (eds), A
companion to environmental geography, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell,
pp. 123-142.
Prudham, W. S. (2013). Men and Things: Karl Polanyi Primitive
Accumulation and their Relevance to a Radical Green Political
Economy. Environment and Planning: Economy and Space. Retrieved
from Journal.sagepub.com.
Prudham, W.S. (2005). Knock on Wood: Nature as commodity in DouglasFir Country. London: Routledge.
Radin, M. J. (1996). Contested Commodities. London: Harvard University
Press.
Robertson, M. M. (2002). ‘No Net Loss: Wetland Restoration and the
Incomplete Capitalisation of Nature’. Antipode, 32(4): 463–493.
Robertson, M. M.. (2004). ‘The Neoliberalisation of Ecosystem Services:
Wetland Mitigation Banking and Problems in Environmental
Governance’. Geoforum 35 (3): 361–373.
Shoreman-Ouimet, E. & Kopnina, H. (2016). Conservation and Culture:
Beyond Anthropocentrism. New York, NY: Routledge Earthscan.
Smith, N. (2004). Review: When selling our Soul isn’t enough. Reviewed
work: Bodies for sale: ethics and exploitation in human body trade by
Stephen Wilkinson. Social Theory and Practice, Vol.30, No 4, pp.
599-612. Florida State University, Department of Philosophy.
Smith, N. (2009). Commodification in law: Ideologies, intractabilities,
and hyperboles. Spring Science + Business Media.
Smyrnaios, N. (2018). ‘The Commodification of the Internet’. In Internet
Oligopoly: The Corporate Takeover of Our Digital World, 15–36.
Emerald Publishing Limited.
Stern, N. (2006). Stern review of the economics of climate change.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) (2010). The
economics of ecosystems and biodiversity: ecological and
economic foundations. London: Earthscan.
Thomas, F. & Boisvert, V. (eds) (2015). Le Pouvoir de La Biodiversité.
Néolibéralisation de La Nature Dans Les Pays Émergents. Paris: IRD
Éditions & Qu\a e.
Timothy, J. (2012). New trade issues in food, agriculture and natural
resources. The Oxford Handbook on the World Trade Organisation
(WTO). Oxford handbooks.com. www.wto.org
United Nations, European Commission, International Monetary Fund,
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development & World
Bank (2003) Handbook of national accounting: Integrated.
environmental and economic accounting 2003 (SEEA 2003).
Retrieve from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/ seea2003.pdf.
Wallerstein, I. (2004). The essential Wallerstein (New York: The New Press,
2000), World-systems analysis: An introduction. Durham: Duke
University Press.
Wilkinson, S. (2000). “Commodification arguments for the legal prohibition
of organ sale” Health care analysis, 8: 189-201. Stanford
Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab,
Department of Philosophy, Stanford University.www.researchgate.net.
Wilkinson, Stephen. (2003). Bodies for Sale: Ethics and Exploitation in
the Human Body Trade. London & New York: Routledge.
World Trade Report (2010). Natural resources: Definition, trade patterns
and globalisation. World Trade Organisation, (WTO). Retrieved from
www.wto.org.
World Watch Institute (2010). State of the world 2010: Transforming
cultures from consumerism to sustainability. Earth scan, London.
Zwolinski, M. (2016). Exploitation: Stanford encyclopaedia of
philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab, Department of Philosophy,
Stanford University.
Supply in England and Wales’. Annals of the Association of American
Geographers 95 (3): 542–565.
———. (2006). ‘The Nature that Capital Can See: Science, State, and
Market in the Commodification of Ecosystem Services’. Environment
and Planning D24 (3): 367–387.
———. (2007). ‘The “Commons” versus the “Commodity”: Alterglobalisation, anti-privatisation and the human right to water in the global
South’. Antipode 39 (3): 430–455.
Adorno, T.W. (ed.) (1969). SpätkapitalismusoderIndustriegesellschaft.
Verhandlungen des 16. DeutschenSoziologentages. Stuttgart.
Aldo Leopold, A. (1949). Sand country almanac, with Essays on
Conservation from Round River. Random House (Reprinted 1970),
New York.
Armstrong, P., Glyn, A. & Harrison, J. (1984) Capitalism since World
War II: The Making and Breakup of the Great Boom. Fontana.
Armsworth P. R., Chan K. M. A., Daily, G. C., Kremen, C, Rick-etts, T. H.
& Sanjayan, M. A. (2007). Ecosystem-service science and the way
forward for conservation. Conservation Biology 21: 1383–1384.
Bakker, K. (2003). An Uncooperative Commodity: Privatising water in
England and Wales. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bayon, R. (2004). Making environmental markets work: Lessons from
early experience with sulphur, carbon, wetlands, and other related
markets. Forest Trends, Katoomba Group Meeting in Locarno,
Switzerland.
Bridge, G. & Perreault, T. (2009). ‘Environmental Governance’, in Castree,
Noel, et al. (eds) A Companion to Environmental Geography, Oxford:
Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 475-497. (p. 487).
Brosius, P. (1999). Green dots, pink hearts: displacing politics from the
Malaysian rain forest. American Anthropologist 101 (1): 36–57.
Büscher, B. & Fletcher, R. (2014). Conservation by accumulation. New
Political Economy 1 (1): 1–26.
Castree, N. (2003a). ‘Commodifying What Nature?’ Progress in Human
Geography, 27(3): pp. 273-29.
Castree, N. (2010b). ‘Neoliberalism and the Biophysical Environment 2:
Theorising the Neoliberalisation of Nature’, Geography Compass,
4(12): pp. 1734-1746.
Castree, N. (2011). ‘Neoliberalism and the biophysical environment 3:
Putting theory into practice’, Geography Compass, 5(1): pp. 35-
49. (p. 37, 43).
Cheng, K. (2021). Why Exploitation is Unjust: An Egalitarian Account. An
Unpublished Thesis Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Politics and International studies, University of Warwick. Retrieved
from Warwick.ac.uk/lib-publications.
Costanza, R. (2008). Ecosystem services: Multiple classification systems
are needed. Biological Conservation 141: 350–352.
Daily, G. E. (1997). Nature’s services - Societal dependence on natural
ecosystems. Island Press, Washington.
Daly, H. and Cobb, J. (1994). For the common good: Redirecting the
economy towards community, the environment, and a sustainable
future. Beacon Press, Massachusetts.
de Groot, R. S., Wilson, M. & Boumans, R. (2002). A typology for the
description, classification and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods
and services. Ecological Economics 41: 393–408.
Duffy, R., St John, F. A. V., Büscher, B. & Brockington, D. (2015). The
militarisation of anti-poaching: undermining long term goals?
Environmental Conservation 42 (4): 345–348.
Engel, S., Pagiola, S. & Wunder, S. (2008). Designing payments for
environmental services in theory and practice: An overview of the issues.
Ecological Economics 65: 663–674.
Ernest, M. (1975). Late Capitalism (London: Humanities Press).
FAO Earthscan (2011). The State of the World’s land and water resources
for food and agriculture: Managing Systems at Risk. Food and
Agriculture Organisation of the United Nation and the Earthscan.
Freedman, B. (2018). Non-renewable resources – environnemental
science. Powered by Press book.
Getis, A.., Getis, J., Bjelland, M. D. & Fellman, J. D. (2011). Introduction
to Geography. (13th Edition). McGraw Hill Companies. New York.
Pp 118-154.
Gómez-Baggethun, E. & Ruiz-Pérez, M. (2011). Economic valuation and
the commodification of ecosystem services. Progress in Physical
Geography 35: 617–632.
Habermas, J. (1973). Legitimations problemeimSpätkapitalismus.
Frankfurt: Suhrkamp.
Hahn, T. & Tuvendal, M. (2015). Purpose and degrees of commodification:
Economic instruments for biodiversity and eco-system services seed
not rely on market or monetary valuation. Ecosystem Services, Vol.
16, Pp 74-82. Sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 15th November, 2021.
Harmes, A. Unseen Power: How Mutual funds Threaten the Political
Economic Wealth of Nations (Studdard, 2001) at 76.
Harry, R.T. (2006). Challenging Late Capitalism, Neoliberal Globalisation,
& Militarism. ChangeMakers Publication, Chicago IL60647 www.lulu/
changemaker.
Harvey, D. (2003). The New Imperialism, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Haydn W. (2012). The commodification of nature; Paper presented to the
6th Australian National Wilderness Conference, Sydney, September.
Igoe, J. & Brockington, D. (2007) Neoliberal conservation: a brief
introduction. Conservation and Society 5 (4): 432–449.
Jameson, F. (1997). Culture and finance capitalism. Critical Inquiry
24(1).
King, E., J. Cavender-Bares, P., Balvanera, & T. H. Mwampamba, (2015).
Trade–offs in eco-system services and varying stakeholders:
ecology and society. Retrieved from https//www.ecologyand
society.org
Kosoy, C. andLiverman, D. (2010). ‘Who governs, at what scale and at
what price? Geography, environmental governance, and the
commodification of nature’, Annals of the Association of American
Geographers, 94(4): pp. 734-738.
Kosoy, N. and Corbera, E. (2010). ‘Payments for ecosystem services as
commodity fetishism’, Ecological Economics, 69(1): pp. 1228-1236.
Laurent, C.T., (2008). Natural resources and the development
environment dilemma: the shape of the world to come. Charting
the geopolitics of the new century. New York Columbia Press.
Lenin, V.I. (1920). Report on the international situation and the
fundamental tasks of the communist international, July 19, 1920.
Lohmann, L. (2010). ‘“Strange markets” and the climate crisis’, in Bonilla,
O. and Galvez, E. Crisis financier o crisis civilizatoria, Quito: Instituto
de Estudios Ecologistasdel Tercer Mundo. (p. 5);
MacKenzie, D. (2009). ‘Making Things the Same: Gases, Emissions Rights
and the Politics of Carbon Markets’, Accounting, Organisations and
Society, 34(1): pp. 440-455.
Mansfield, B. (2004). ‘Rules of Privatisation: Contradiction in Neoliberal
Regulation of North Pacific Fisheries’. Annals of the Association of
American Geographers 94 (3): 565–584.
Marx, K. (1981). Grundrisse: Foundation of the Critique of Political
Economy (Rough Draft) (Pengiun, London).
McCarthy, J. ‘Commons’, in Castree, N., et al. (eds) (2009). A companion
to environmental geography, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
McCarthy, J. and Prudham, S. (2004). ‘Neoliberal Nature and the Nature
of Neoliberalism’. Geoforum 35: 275–283.
Michelle, D. (2009). Introduction to Sociological Theory: Theorists,
Concepts and their Applicability to the Twenty-first century.
Goodread Inc. Amazon Publications NY.
Millennium Assessment (M.A.) (2005). Ecosystems and human wellbeing: A framework for assessment. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Miller, G. T., & Spoolman, S. (2011). Living in the environment: Principle,
connections and solutions (17th ed.) Belmont, CA: Brooks-Cole.
Missemer, A. (2018). ‘Natural Capital as an Economic Concept, History
and Contemporary Issues’. Ecological Economics 143: 90–96.
O’Neill, J. (2001). ‘Markets and the environment: The solution is the
problem’, Economic and Political Weekly, 36(21): pp. 1865-1873.
Oelschlaeger, M. (1991). The idea of wilderness: From prehistory to the
age of ecology. Yale University Press, New Haven/London.
OISD (2019). Two paradigms: Sustainable development paradigms InDepth: Sustainability Theory- A Contested Paradigm. (Weak Versus
strong Sustainability: Exploring the Limits of Two Opposing
Paradigms. OISD, Washington DC.
P.B.S. Documentary (2009). ‘The national parks: America’s best idea’,
public broadcasting service. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/
nationalparks/
Prudham, W. S. (2009). ‘Commodification’, in Castree, Noel, et al. (eds), A
companion to environmental geography, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell,
pp. 123-142.
Prudham, W. S. (2013). Men and Things: Karl Polanyi Primitive
Accumulation and their Relevance to a Radical Green Political
Economy. Environment and Planning: Economy and Space. Retrieved
from Journal.sagepub.com.
Prudham, W.S. (2005). Knock on Wood: Nature as commodity in DouglasFir Country. London: Routledge.
Radin, M. J. (1996). Contested Commodities. London: Harvard University
Press.
Robertson, M. M. (2002). ‘No Net Loss: Wetland Restoration and the
Incomplete Capitalisation of Nature’. Antipode, 32(4): 463–493.
Robertson, M. M.. (2004). ‘The Neoliberalisation of Ecosystem Services:
Wetland Mitigation Banking and Problems in Environmental
Governance’. Geoforum 35 (3): 361–373.
Shoreman-Ouimet, E. & Kopnina, H. (2016). Conservation and Culture:
Beyond Anthropocentrism. New York, NY: Routledge Earthscan.
Smith, N. (2004). Review: When selling our Soul isn’t enough. Reviewed
work: Bodies for sale: ethics and exploitation in human body trade by
Stephen Wilkinson. Social Theory and Practice, Vol.30, No 4, pp.
599-612. Florida State University, Department of Philosophy.
Smith, N. (2009). Commodification in law: Ideologies, intractabilities,
and hyperboles. Spring Science + Business Media.
Smyrnaios, N. (2018). ‘The Commodification of the Internet’. In Internet
Oligopoly: The Corporate Takeover of Our Digital World, 15–36.
Emerald Publishing Limited.
Stern, N. (2006). Stern review of the economics of climate change.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) (2010). The
economics of ecosystems and biodiversity: ecological and
economic foundations. London: Earthscan.
Thomas, F. & Boisvert, V. (eds) (2015). Le Pouvoir de La Biodiversité.
Néolibéralisation de La Nature Dans Les Pays Émergents. Paris: IRD
Éditions & Qu\a e.
Timothy, J. (2012). New trade issues in food, agriculture and natural
resources. The Oxford Handbook on the World Trade Organisation
(WTO). Oxford handbooks.com. www.wto.org
United Nations, European Commission, International Monetary Fund,
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development & World
Bank (2003) Handbook of national accounting: Integrated.
environmental and economic accounting 2003 (SEEA 2003).
Retrieve from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/ seea2003.pdf.
Wallerstein, I. (2004). The essential Wallerstein (New York: The New Press,
2000), World-systems analysis: An introduction. Durham: Duke
University Press.
Wilkinson, S. (2000). “Commodification arguments for the legal prohibition
of organ sale” Health care analysis, 8: 189-201. Stanford
Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab,
Department of Philosophy, Stanford University.www.researchgate.net.
Wilkinson, Stephen. (2003). Bodies for Sale: Ethics and Exploitation in
the Human Body Trade. London & New York: Routledge.
World Trade Report (2010). Natural resources: Definition, trade patterns
and globalisation. World Trade Organisation, (WTO). Retrieved from
www.wto.org.
World Watch Institute (2010). State of the world 2010: Transforming
cultures from consumerism to sustainability. Earth scan, London.
Zwolinski, M. (2016). Exploitation: Stanford encyclopaedia of
philosophy. The Metaphysics Research Lab, Department of Philosophy,
Stanford University.